PAPER PRESENTED BY
EZEANI JOHNPAUL. E
TRAVEL & TOURISM CONSULTANT TO
ENUGU STATE TOURISM BOARD
08063502100, 07017895370
On 14th July 2015
SECTION I
Introduction
One of the major challenges facing the modern world is
poverty. In Nigeria, high level of poverty remains a major impediment in the
effort to achieve the millennium development goals. Consequently, the need to
harness community-based tourism (CBT) as an additional source of income
generation and job creation becomes imperative. Community based tourism occurs
when decisions about tourism activities and development are driven by the host
community. It is also used to describe series of activities that encourage and
support a wide range of socio-economic development goals.
It is obvious that no country of the world today, whether developing or
industrialized can afford to reject the blooming significance of tourism to its
economic, social, political and cultural development. Countries of the world
have become aware of the numerous benefits accruing from tourism and are
working more than ever before to develop their tourism industry. According to United
Nations world tourism organization, tourism has recorded a remarkable increase
to the world economy, 9% to GDP- direct, indirect and induced impact, 1 in 11
jobs, US$ 1.4 trillion in exports, 6% of world’s exports, from 25 million
international tourists in 1950 to 1087 million in 2013, 5 to 6 billion domestic
tourists and 1.8 billion international tourists forecast for 2030. Tourism is
certainly a very important vehicle for the transfer of capital worldwide. In
human history, tourism is the only industry that accounts for the largest
migration of people all year round. Unlike other industries, tourism
industry takes the customer to the product, rather than delivering the product
to the customer (Manning, 1998).
Tourism has become a significant and even essential part of the local
community. Its potential to alleviate poverty is numerous. It has a unique
potential to carry exchange and investment directly to the local level, and can
as well make significant contribution to rural development, particularly in
agricultural transformation, community enrichment and social empowerment. It
enhances the social standard of any given community and can change both the
environment and the lives of the members of that community.
Anambra state is endowed with natural and cultural tourism resources located
all over the state, having the highest concentration in traditional rural
communities, which when harnessed can produce a distinctive tourism industry
capable of generating income and raising the living standard of the local
communities. Communities suffering economic bottleneck often have the necessary
drive to actively consider development option, and an appealing opportunity is
the potential offered by tourism. Therefore, the development and marketing of
tourism potentials through community-based tourism will not only end at
boosting the economy of the area and upgrade the living standard of the people,
but will also better the social, political and the cultural lives of the host.
SECTION II
Community-Based Tourism (CBT): A
Review of Related Literature
A community is a group of people living together in an
acceptable environment or locality having a common interest with a collective
responsibility to make decisions by representative bodies for survival. For the purpose of this paper, community-based
tourism is defined as a form of tourism which occurs when issues concerning
tourism development and its associated activities are discussed and decisions
taken among members of the host community (www.responsibletourism.com).
It is a type of tourism in which local communities (usually, poor and
economically backward people) invite tourists to their communities, having
provided overnight accommodation for their comfort.
Aspects of community lifestyle often result to cultural exchange when tourists come
in contact with the host. In most cases, “such remote ethnic communities may be
vulnerable to outside influences and decisions about the way tourists are
hosted must be owned by the community for successful and sustainable tourism”
(SNV 2003). Tourists come in contact with local habitat and wildlife,
participate in different cultural festivals, respect traditional cultures,
rituals and wisdom through community based tourism. Conversely, the host
community becomes aware of the commercial and social value placed on their
heritage thereby inducing community based heritage conservation.
However, this type of tourism is indeed aimed at upgrading the living standard
of the local residence as revenues are generated through communities’
initiatives and/or self developmental projects like construction of bridges and
roads, town halls and rural electrification, sign posts/road signs, among
others. It is natural that income generated from tourism is used to conserve
the resources of nature as well as renovating and building new facilities for
tourists up keep and influx respectively. Thus part of the income generated
from tourists is set aside for projects which provide benefits to the community
holistically. As rightly argued by World Bank (2000) a sense of pride among the local
population is usually associated with community based tourism, such
that money generated is used to maintain and upgrade cultural assets like
archaeological ruins, historical sites, traditional craft production and the
like.
Furthermore, it should be reemphasized that for tourism to become community
based, members of the community must have some development initiative through
self help projects. Such community development initiatives as outlined by
Eze-Uzomaka (2006) include building of schools, town halls, construction of
feeder roads and drainage system, electricity, water projects, establishment
and maintenance of local markets etc. She noted that these projects are usually
financed by the community themselves through levies and contributions from
indigenous groups like village progressive unions, age grades, groups of
wealthy individuals or families and committee of friends (Eze-Uzomaka, 2006).
This paper advocates that since the major aim of community-based tourism
development is to solve community oriented problems and provide their needs, Anambra
state can alleviate poverty and improve their living standard through a well
developed community-based tourism. The potential tourism resources in the state
are unique and can satisfy tourists’ curiosity, anxiety and quest to feel
nature as well as foster a sense of cultural belonging. No doubt, Anambra state
could serve tourists even with minimum entrepreneurial skills so long as the
attractions are harnessed to an appreciable height. Generally, community based
tourism avail tourists the opportunity to know the social, cultural and
religious practices of the host and allow the local residence to understand the
need for preservation of their tourism resources.
One Definition of CBT
CBT is tourism that takes
environmental, social, and cultural sustainability into account. It is managed
and owned by the community, for the community, with the purpose of enabling
visitors to increase their awareness and learn about the community and local
ways of life.
Ø Instead of
asking how can communities benefit more from tourism? CBT ask the question: How
can tourism contributes to the process of community development?
Ø CBT is not
simply a tourism business that aims at maximizing profits for investors. CBT
emerges from a community development strategy, using tourism as a tool to
strengthen the ability of rural community organization that manages tourism
resources with the participation of local people. However, CBT is far from a
perfect, prepackaged solution to community problems. In fact, if carelessly
applied, CBT can cause problems and bring disaster.
Ø CBT marketing should promote public awareness
of the differences between CBT and mass tourism, educating people to realize
the importance of CBT as a community tool for resource conservation and culture
preservation.
Principles of Community based
tourism
These principles are closely
related to UNEPs and WTOs agenda for more sustainable tourism described in the
theory. These principles show that CBT focuses on socio-cultural issues:
1. Recognize, support and promote
community ownership of tourism
2. Involve community members from
the start in all aspects
3. Promote community pride
4. Improve the quality of life
5. Ensure environmental
sustainability
6. Preserve the unique character
and culture of the local area
7. Foster cross-culture learning
8. Respect cultural differences and
human dignity
9. Distribute benefits fairly among
community members
10. Contribute a fixed percentage
of income to community projects
Before developing CBT in line with
these principles, it is necessary to prepare and build the capacity of the host
community to manage tourism.
The
relationship between resources and actions in CBT is illustrated in the diagram
above
The
key rationale underlying the approach and objectives of CBT for conservation
and development is that CBT through increased intensities of participation can
provide widespread economic and other benefits and decision-making power to
communities. These economic benefits act as incentives for participants and the
means to conserve the natural and cultural resources on which income generation
depends. Note from the diagram that the community is at the centre and is
occupying the commanding position with regard to the management of its natural
and cultural resources which can be reformulated as tourism products. The
relationship of the industry to the tourism products developed out of the
natural and cultural resources of the community is not a direct, one-to-one
relationship; on the contrary, it is through the intermediation of the
community. This is aimed to ensure that the aspirations of the community are
never bypassed by the extraneous industry interests. One can see CBT as an
interaction among the three major groupings of the community, the tourism
industry, and the tourists themselves. In the language of cost-benefit
analysis (CBA), community based tourism may be expressed in terms of
the following inequalities:
CB>IB>IC>CC
(The inequality of interaction between the community and the industry)
CB>TB>TC>CC
(The inequality of interaction between the community and the tourists)
IB>TB>TC>IC
(The inequality of interaction between the industry and the tourists
(CB=Community
Benefits - CC=Community Costs -IB=Industrial Benefits - IC=Industrial Costs
-TB=Tourist Benefits -and TC=Tourist Costs)
Note
that the maximum benefit with the least cost goes to the community. This is the
essential condition for CBT and the other conditions are not as consequential
as this. The third condition may even be contested; however, we feel this is
desirable since only if the industry benefit is significant than the industry
cost shall it survive and not move on to unsustainable practices; tourists
shall visit a CBT destination as long as tourist benefit is more than tourist
cost.
Benefits of
Community Based Tourism
If properly planned, community based tourism
produces various economic, social, infrastructural and academic rewards. For instance, community based tourism:
Ø Create
local jobs
Ø Improve
community income
Ø Make
available opportunities for local entrepreneurs to set up different ventures
Ø Produce
tax revenue
Ø Create
infrastructural facilities like roads, electricity, transportation, housing and
water schemes
Ø It
also encourages the expansion of other money-making activities like fisheries,
manufacturing and craft development.
The
Blueprint for Developing Community Based Tourism in a Destination
In order for CBT to be developed in a systematic
manner, a methodological framework needs to be adopted. An outline of a
suggested framework is provided below (Source: Tuffin, 2005)
1. Choose a destination
2. Complete a feasibility study with the community
3. Create an action plan
4. Set up an administrative system
5. Prepare for operation
6. Monitor and evaluate
Step
1: Choose a destination
Choosing
an appropriate destination requires collecting information that leads to an
understanding of the community. A detailed study of the village context
includes collecting information about the community from organizations working
there, government agencies, other communities in the area, and the community
members themselves.
Step
2: Complete a feasibility study
The
community needs to be fully involved in the process of deciding if they want to
be involved in a tourism project. The process for building consensus in the
community requires that the information and data be studied with the public and
private partners and then an action plan be formulated. It is important to be
open and honest about the limitations of the community when deciding whether to
continue or not. The decision to develop CBT must be agreed upon by all
parties. During this process the community will be stimulated to think about
the reasons and motivations for developing CBT. They should be able to discuss
the issues and visit communities which are already involved in CBT. The
community members need to answer questions like:
Do you want CBT to raise income?
Do you want CBT to preserve culture?
Do you want CBT to conserve natural resources?
Do you want CBT to bring more knowledge and skills
into the community?
Step
3: Create an action plan
If
all parties reach a consensus, the planning process can begin. In this stage
the community creates an action plan and enters into agreement with external
agencies like tour operators. Some of the key issues that need to be considered
include: Programs for the tourists; Services that will need to be provided;
Development of facilities and infrastructure; Training that will need to be
provided; Carrying capacity; and, Tour program and price. The public
partner (association of the community members) will need to formulate a
monitoring and evaluation plan that includes the associated indicators and the
private partner can begin to draft a marketing plan and strategy.
Step
4: Set up an administrative system
Without
transparent organization, confusion, suspicion, and conflict can arise in the
community. It is crucial that the community sets up a clear administrative
system to effectively manage CBT. The administrative organization will
focus on the following: Participation level of community members; Division of
roles in operation; Division of benefits; Transparency of management; Measures
to control economic and social impacts; Measures to control natural and
cultural impacts; and, Cooperation and communication with public and private
partners.
Step
5: Preparation of operation
Before
full operation of the tour program can start, the community and its partners
need to acquire skills and experience in operating CBT. The infrastructure must
all be designed and built and the equipment acquired and put in place. At this
stage emphasis will be placed on:
Training:
including guiding skills, language learning, food preparation, housekeeping and
simple accounting systems
Preparation
of information: involving the educational content of the tour program; the
things about themselves that the community members will share with tourists
Infrastructure
design and construction: community lodges, trails, water systems, power
systems, toilets, etc. The community members will need to gain experience in
guiding and operating the tour program and distributing benefits. It will be
necessary to bring pilot groups of tourists into the community so that the
community members can see what works and what does not and so that they can
practice their skills and test the administrative systems.
Step
6: Monitoring and evaluation
Monitoring
and evaluation starts once the program is in full operation. It helps to
identify problems, impacts and benefits, as well as to ensure the
sustainability of the operation. It examines the extent to which the project is
meeting its objectives. It should also result in plans and efforts to
compensate for weaknesses, correct problems, adjust systems and improve the
program. Monitoring and evaluation is a participatory process. All stakeholders
should play a role in gathering the monitoring data, assisting in the analysis,
and in actions taken as a result of the final assessment and evaluation.
The
aspects monitored include: Environmental impacts; Economic impacts; Cultural
impacts; Social impacts; Efficacy of CBT as a development tool; etc.
Information
can be gathered from the tourists, the community members and from physical
inspections of infrastructure and the environment. Tools used for monitoring
can include questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, guest books, photographs,
checklists, trend lines, seasonal calendars, and so on. Often in CBT the
locations are remote and subject to national policies regulating access by
foreigners as well as domestic visitors. Thus while initial assessments show
considerable potential as tourism destinations, there may be regulations that
restrict access by numbers and by seasons. International policies and actions
have complex linkages with the visitor to a protected area and the local
entrepreneur. Political instability can also affect the volume of visitors.
SECTION
III
The
Role of Non-Governmental Organizations in Community Based Tourism
Nongovernmental
organizations, or NGOs, are generally accepted to be organizations which have
not been established by governments or agreements among governments. In the
early 1990s there began to be recognition of the importance of NGOs. They are
found to have closer ties to on-the-ground realities in developing countries
and, perhaps more important, to be able to deliver development aid considerably
more cheaply than states or intergovernmental organizations.
Aided
by advances in information and communications technology, NGOs have helped to
focus attention on the social and environmental externalities of business
activity. Multinational brands have been acutely susceptible to pressure from
activists and from NGOs eager to challenge a company's labor, environmental or
human rights record. Even those businesses that do not specialize in highly
visible branded goods are feeling the pressure, as campaigners develop
techniques to target downstream customers and shareholders. In response to such
pressures, many businesses are abandoning their narrow shareholder theory of
value in favor of a broader, stakeholder approach which not only seeks
increased share value, but cares about how this increased value is to be
attained. Such a stakeholder approach takes into account the effects of
business activity - not just on shareholders, but on customers, employees,
communities and other interested groups. There are many visible manifestations
of this shift. One has been the devotion of energy and resources by companies
to environmental and social affairs. Companies are taking responsibility for
their externalities and reporting on the impact of their activities on a range
of stakeholders. Nor are companies merely reporting; many are striving to
design new management structures which integrate sustainable development
concerns into the decision-making process.
NGOs
have been involved with tourism related issues for a long time. Current
international activities in community tourism planning and development reflect
a strong interest and involvement by NGOs, particularly those focused on
resource conservation. Traditionally, they have been critical. They have
campaigned against contentious issues, such as tourism links to child
prostitution and the forced relocation of peoples for new developments. NGOs
have frequently been concerned with tourism related environmental issues,
opposing, for example, the establishment of golf courses in developing world
locations that have exploited land and water previously available to local
communities. NGOs have also focused their attention on the flow of income from
tourism, particularly in the developing world, examining how this has been
generated and how equitable its distribution is. Most NGOs commenting on
tourism have had their major interests elsewhere.
However,
NGOs can play an important constructive role in the development of management
strategies and in the planning process of tourism development for various
reasons. Tourism is becoming far too commoditized, and NGO involvement offers
alternative ways of viewing the tourism experience. NGOs have prioritized
development approaches that include host community perspectives, emphasized
host–visitor
interaction and stressed nature and cultural conservation. A number of NGOs
have been actively involved in tourism related projects. The motives of NGOs in
these circumstances appear to have been to boldly go where government or
private commercial organizations would find political or economic resistance.
Being nongovernmental institutions they can establish and facilitate the
participation of local stakeholders. Being non-profit organizations, they can
promote the sustainable use of biodiversity and cultural resources and point
out the economic benefits of the integration of tourism development and
nature/culture conservation. Being experts in ecological sciences, social
development and project management, and having a deep insight into the regional
political and economic structures, NGOs can contribute significantly to the
sustainability of community based tourism development. NGOs can sensitize the
public and even organize mass movements if avaricious industrial interests
placate the wider goals of community centered tourism development. Thus, they
can act as brokers between conflicting groups and some of them have the
potential to act in a conflict management capacity.
Another
role that NGOs can take over is that of a co-operative agency that manages a
community’s initiatives towards CBT. Where international tour
operators are unable to contract ground services to in-country operations or do
not employ residents of that country, the amount retained in the destination is
obviously lower than if this was not the case. Some NGOs appear to have special
skills in collaborative partnerships based upon shared aims with local
communities, the private sector and other NGOs. The NGO can become a unified
marketing front for the small and medium scale tourism enterprises run by the
community members. With the help of e-commerce technologies, such a body can
bypass the middlemen like travel agents and tour operators and reach the
tourist originating markets directly. With tour operators invariably demanding
payment in the visitor’s country of origin, the benefits to national
economies can vary considerably. This has the potential to make the community’s
tourism offerings more cost-competitive, too. In these situations the
development work of NGOs can be directly supported by tourism income flows,
active tourist participation in projects, or through direct and indirect
donations to their work.
Thus,
NGOs are shown often to be both campaigning and proactive bodies, capable of
operating in a wide variety of natural, economic and political environments. In
sum, NGOs in community based tourism does one or more of the following things:
1.
Contribute to the development of policies and plans for the CBT industry
2.
Assist the government in developing a standard for responsible community based
tourism
3.
Assist the government, private sector and communities in implementing,
monitoring and evaluating CBT
4.
Attract funding from donor agencies to develop specific CBT projects
5.
Assist communities and community groups in organizing themselves, preparing
themselves for CBT and implementing CBT projects
6.
Assist the government in conducting tourism and environmental awareness
programs among communities and the tourism industry at large
7.
Liaise between the private sector and communities to generate more community
involvement in the tourism sector and stronger private sector commitment
8.
Deliver education, training, bridging courses, and other capacity building
exercises to local communities
9.
Resist against inequitable tourism development by campaigning and mobilizing
community support
10.
Manage and market the community tourism product for the community, at least
until the community gains experience to manage on its own.
Some
of NGOs that do outstanding work in the area of tourism are:
¨
Tourism Concern (www.tourismconcern.org.uk)
¨
Equations in India (www.equitabletourism.org)
¨
Ecumenical Coalition on Third World Tourism (www.ecotonline.org)
¨
World Wide Fund for Nature (www.wwf.org)
¨
Conservation International (www.conservation.org)
¨
Rainforest Alliance (www.rain-forest-alliance.org)
¨
Cultural Restoration Tourism Project (http://home.earthlink.net/~crtp)
¨
International Council on Monuments and Sites (www.icomos.org)
¨
International Society for Eco-tourism Management (www.ecomanage.com)
¨
Partners in Responsible Tourism (www2.pirt.org)
¨
Retour Foundation (www.retour.net)
SECTION
IV
Governments
and Community Based Tourism
Community
Based Tourism cannot be implemented successfully without the constant and
coordinated facilitation by the various governmental bodies. Governments play a
critical role through their institutional leadership, guaranteeing stakeholders’
participation. The Governments’ role is also essential
in the establishment of regulatory and policy frameworks, ensuring their
enforcement, the application of appropriate economic instruments (including the
removal of environmentally perverse subsidies), and monitoring environmental
quality. What communities do in tourism depends on the opportunities and power
they have, the incentives and prices they face, and their access to skills,
training, capital and markets. All of these are shaped by government policies,
regulation and taxes. Only governments can provide the strategic planning base
for CBT which is so clearly needed. Only they can ensure that valuable and
fragile habitats are identified, that baseline studies and monitoring are
carried out, and that overall infrastructure needs and implications are
assessed. And only they can establish emissions standards and citing and design
requirements, and ensure that they are enforced.
Governments
need to make resources such as the State Tourism Board accessible to CBT
operations, while ensuring that systems of licensing or tourism standards do
not act as barriers. Government, especially, the local government, provides the
core utilities and infrastructure on which the tourism industry is based. This
includes district and city roads, lighting, water and sewerage, public
transport systems, signs, airports, and ports. If local government operates
attractions such as museums, art galleries, sports stadiums, convention
centers, parks, gardens, events, tours, and other amenities, the same become
additional motivators for tourists to visit a CBT destination. The government
can integrate travel information about the CBT destinations in the country into
its Visitor Information Network, too.
Private
companies can’t be expected to share profits and power with rural
communities simply because it’s a kind thing to do.
But governments can create the conditions under which it is in their interests
to work with communities by giving communities market power and giving the
private sector more security of investment and incentives for partnership. This
can be by means of: asking private sector bidders to develop proposals for
community partnership, and making this a key criteria in allocating tourism
rights. This small change to the planning process can force every new
investment to address community tourism issues.
Devolving
tenure to communities, to give them market power in forming agreements
Giving
communities an equity share in government-private agreements
Helping
local residents to start private enterprises.
Policies
vary from country to country and over time. It is often the overall approach
that is most important in helping community tourism to flourish. Some tips that
are suggested from governments in CBT by Africa Resources Trust (ART, 2005)
are:
v Create
supportive attitudes in government
v Let
communities develop tourism over time
v Create
opportunities and remove constraints, rather than plan community tourism for
them
v Recognize
that local people will have multiple livelihood objectives, not just maximizing
cash income. Concerns about how land or natural resources are used, or access
to training, can be equally important to livelihoods
v Enhance
their power in the tourism market
v Ensure
tourism sector regulations encourage rather than exclude the informal sector
v Welcome
NGO facilitation – it’s usually needed
There
are two extremes to be avoided: one is to ignore community tourism or pretend
it will happen with no support from Government and the industry. The other is
for government and the industry to try to do everything and do it now, without
allowing time for local people to develop their ideas and skills.
Harnessing
Public-Private Partnership for Community Based Tourism
Public-private
partnership (PPP or P3) is a variation of privatization in which elements of a
service previously run solely by the public sector are provided through a
partnership between the government and one or more private sector companies.
Unlike a full privatization scheme, in which the new venture is expected to
function like any other private business, the government continues to
participate in some way.
Important
variants of public-private partnerships are (Source: National Council for
Public Private Partnerships, USA): Build/Operate/Transfer (BOT) or
Build/Transfer/Operate (BTO); Build-Own-Operate (BOO); Buy-Build-Operate (BBO);
Service Contracts (SC); Design-Build (DB); Design-Build-Maintain (DBM);
Design-Build-Operate (DBO); Developer Finance: Enhanced Use Leasing (EUL);
Lease/Develop/Operate (LDO) or Build/Develop/Operate (BDO);
Lease/Purchase; Sale/Leaseback; Tax-Exempt Lease; and Turnkey
Arrangement.
Build/Operate/Transfer
(BOT) or Build/Transfer/Operate (BTO):
The private partner builds a facility to the specifications agreed to by the
public agency, operates the facility for a specified time period under a
contract or franchise agreement with the agency, and then transfers the
facility to the agency at the end of the specified period of time. In most
cases, the private partner will also provide some, or all, of the financing for
the facility, so the length of the contract or franchise must be sufficient to
enable the private partner to realize a reasonable return on its investment
through user charges. At the end of the franchise period, the public partner
can assume operating responsibility for the facility, contract the operations
to the original franchise holder, or award a new contract or franchise to a new
private partner. The BTO model is similar to the BOT model except that the
transfer to the public owner takes place at the time that construction is
completed, rather than at the end of the franchise period.
Build-Own-Operate
(BOO): The contractor constructs and operates a facility
without transferring ownership to the public sector. Legal title to the
facility remains in the private sector, and there is no obligation for the
public sector to purchase the facility or take title. A BOO transaction may
qualify for tax-exempt status as a service contract if all Internal Revenue
Code requirements are satisfied.
Buy-Build-Operate
(BBO): A BBO is a form of asset sale that includes a
rehabilitation or expansion of an existing facility. The government sells the
asset to the private sector entity, which then makes the improvements necessary
to operate the facility in a profitable manner.
Service
Contracts: A public partner (federal, state, or
local government agency or authority) contracts with a private partner to
provide and/or maintain a specific service. Under the private operation and
maintenance option, the public partner retains ownership and overall management
of the public facility or system. Another way is public partner (federal,
state, or local government agency or authority) contracts with a private
partner to operate, maintain, and manage a facility or system proving a
service. Under this contract option, the public partner retains ownership of
the public facility or system, but the private party may invest its own capital
in the facility or system. Any private investment is carefully calculated in
relation to its contributions to operational efficiencies and savings over the
term of the contract. Generally, the longer the contract term, the greater the
opportunity for increased private investment because there is more time
available in which to recoup any investment and earn a reasonable return. Many
local governments use this contractual partnership to provide wastewater
treatment services.
Design-Build
(DB): A DB is when the private partner provides both
design and construction of a project to the public agency. This type of
partnership can reduce time, save money, provide stronger guarantees and
allocate additional project risk to the private sector. It also reduces
conflict by having a single entity responsible to the public owner for the
design and construction. The public sector partner owns the assets and has the
responsibility for the operation and maintenance.
Design-Build-Maintain
(DBM): A DBM is similar to a DB except the maintenance of
the facility for some period of time becomes the responsibility of the private
sector partner. The benefits are similar to the DB with maintenance risk being
allocated to the private sector partner and the guarantee expanded to include
maintenance. The public sector partner owns and operates the assets.
Design-Build-Operate
(DBO): A single contract is awarded for the design,
construction, and operation of a capital improvement. Title to the facility
remains with the public sector unless the project is a
design/build/operate/transfer or design/build/own/operate project. The DBO
method of contracting is contrary to the separated and sequential approach
ordinarily used in the United States by both the public and private sectors.
This method involves one contract for design with an architect or engineer,
followed by a different contract with a builder for project construction,
followed by the owner's taking over the project and operating it. A
simple design-build approach creates a single point of responsibility for
design and construction and can speed project completion by facilitating the
overlap of the design and construction phases of the project. On a public
project, the operations phase is normally handled by the public sector under a
separate operations and maintenance agreement. Combining all three passes into
a DBO approach maintains the continuity of private sector involvement and can
facilitate private-sector financing of public projects supported by user fees
generated during the operations phase.
Developer
Finance: The private party finances the
construction or expansion of a public facility in exchange for the right to
build residential housing, commercial stores, and/or industrial facilities at
the site. The private developer contributes capital and may operate the
facility under the oversight of the government. The developer gains the right
to use the facility and may receive future income from user fees. While
developers may in rare cases build a facility, more typically they are charged
a fee or required to purchase capacity in an existing facility. This payment is
used to expand or upgrade the facility. Developer financing arrangements are
often called capacity credits, impact fees, or extractions. Developer financing
may be voluntary or involuntary depending on the specific local circumstances.
Enhanced
Use Leasing (EUL): An EUL is an asset management
program in the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) that can include a variety
of different leasing arrangements (e.g. lease/develop/operate,
build/develop/operate). EULs enable the VA to long-term lease VA-controlled
property to the private sector or other public entities for non-VA uses in
return for receiving fair consideration (monetary or in-kind) that enhances
VA's mission or programs
Lease/Develop/Operate
(LDO) or Build/Develop/Operate (BDO): Under these
partnerships arrangements, the private party leases or buys an existing
facility from a public agency; invests its own capital to renovate, modernize,
and/or expand the facility; and then operates it under a contract with the
public agency. A number of different types of municipal transit facilities have
been leased and developed under LDO and BDO arrangements.
Lease/Purchase:
A lease/purchase is an installment-purchase contract. Under this model, the
private sector finances and builds a new facility, which it then leases to a
public agency. The public agency makes scheduled lease payments to the private
party. The public agency accrues equity in the facility with each payment. At
the end of the lease term, the public agency owns the facility or purchases it
at the cost of any remaining unpaid balance in the lease. Under this
arrangement, the facility may be operated by either the public agency or the
private developer during the term of the lease. Lease/purchase arrangements
have been used by the General Services Administration for building federal
office buildings and by a number of states to build prisons and other correctional
facilities.
Sale/Leaseback:
This is a financial arrangement in which the owner of a facility sells it to
another entity, and subsequently leases it back from the new owner. Both public
and private entities may enter into a sale/leaseback arrangement for a variety
of reasons. An innovative application of the sale/leaseback technique is the
sale of a public facility to a public or private holding company for the
purposes of limiting governmental liability under certain statues. Under this
arrangement, the government that sold the facility leases it back and continues
to operate it.
Tax-Exempt
Lease: A public partner finances capital assets or
facilities by borrowing funds from a private investor or financial institution.
The private partner generally acquires title to the asset, but then transfers
it to the public partner either at the beginning or end of the lease term. The
portion of the lease payment used to pay interest on the capital investment is
tax exempt under state and federal laws. Tax-exempt leases have been used to
finance a wide variety of capital assets, ranging from computers to
telecommunication systems and municipal vehicle fleets.
Turnkey
Arrangement: A public agency contracts with a
private investor/vendor to design and build a complete facility in accordance
with specified performance standards and criteria agreed to between the agency
and the vendor. The private developer commits to build the facility for a fixed
price and absorbs the construction risk of meeting that price commitment. Generally,
in a turnkey transaction, the private partners use fast-track construction
techniques (such as design-build) and are not bound by traditional public
sector procurement regulations. This combination often enables the private
partner to complete the facility in significantly less time and for less cost
than could be accomplished under traditional construction techniques. In a
turnkey transaction, financing and ownership of the facility can rest with
either the public or private partner. For example, the public agency might
provide the financing, with the attendant costs and risks. Alternatively, the
private party might provide the financing capital, generally in exchange for a
long-term contract to operate the facility.
Further
details about these variants are beyond the scope of this paper. However,
learners who are desirous of knowing are advised to consult the website of the
National Council for Public Private Partnerships, USA (http://ncppp.org).
There are several basic characteristics of community-based tourism development
that make public-private partnerships a possibility (UNESCAP, 2001). First,
communities may not have the skills and experience in tourism management.
Second, community tourism ventures take time to set up and require a process of
intensive capacity building. Third, community tourism ventures may not be
profitable when they are initiated.
Partnership
is becoming a powerful tool for implementing CBT policies more effectively.
PPPs enable the public sector to benefit from commercial dynamism, the ability
to raise finances in an environment of budgetary restrictions, innovation and
efficiencies, harnessed through the introduction of private sector investors
who contribute their own capital, skills and experience. The positive
characteristics of PPP arrangements for infrastructure development appear
particularly attractive to developing countries like India given the enormous
financing requirements, the equally large funding shortfall, the need for efficient
public services, availability of a pool of private finance, growing market
stability and privatization trends creating a favorable environment for private
sector participation (Subramaniam, 2005). Despite numerous advantages, certain
negative aspects - a too large role for governments, partnerships lacking
attention to market needs, disproportional investments, inefficiency of public
administration, institutionalization of projects and lack of creativity - have
to be taken into consideration before going in for any PPP based tourism
development since these are antithetical to the spirit of CBT.
According
to OECD (1997), good partnership involves a clear definition of roles,
competencies, responsibilities and advantages both in public administrations and
private enterprises. In particular, the public sector, as an agent of
development, may help achieve optimal exploitation of public resources and
services, safeguard the environment, and develop human resources. Partnerships
must be based on agreements which show the economic benefits for the
public/private sector and/or centre/periphery. More and more forms of
partnerships are developed in almost all areas of tourism policy. Governments
have to play an important role in new ways of organizing this co-operation,
notably by defining a clear national strategy for tourism policy which will
stimulate and guide innovative partnerships and give incentives to all
individual partners to participate in the development.
SECTION V
Recommendations
It is obvious that when the tourism potentials of a
place are harnessed, it can be packaged into viable tourism products. This will
help tourists to know the contents of the available products of that
destination as well as take the right decision on which to patronize.
Considering the tourism potentials of Anambra State, which are still at its
undeveloped stages, there is need for synergy of all the factors that will aid
in the development and promotion of CBT in the various communities in the state.
However, these factors can be assembled together through the following
recommendations:
The development of tourism of any given area and its promotion is capital
intensive and require huge amount of money. The state government should release
funds for tourism development and promotion. Tourism stakeholders are also
encouraged to actively participate in funding these projects.
Nigeria however has a good vision for tourism, but is faced with the problem of
non implementation of the existing tourism policies. Government policy on
tourism has been in existence since 1982 as exemplified in decree No. 81, but
its implementation has long been hampered by the uncoordinated and conflicting
roles of some stakeholders in the development and promotion of the industry.
However, this has been addressed to a large extent by the Nigeria Tourism
Development Master Plan of 2006; there is therefore the need for an effective
implementation of Nigerian tourism policy of …….with a view to encourage
the establishment of CBT in most Nigerian communities and help to preserve,
promote and present the tourism attractions of the state to the global world.
Apart from being capital intensive, tourism also requires careful professional
management. Therefore, there is need for capacity building through staff
training. Tourism education should also be encouraged at all levels of formal
education- nursery, primary, secondary and tertiary levels to inculcate the
knowledge of tourism in the study train of the students. These will definitely
increase the staff strength of the industry.
Conclusion
Raising
awareness of all stakeholders involved in community-based tourism is essential
for promoting an understanding of the beneficial link between conservation and
community development. Awareness raising and information dissemination to the
community allows for greater self-determination and informed decision-making.
Awareness campaign is equally important to other stakeholders involved, as it
leads to greater understanding and sensitivity toward the variables involved in
implementing community-based tourism. Conservationists and development
professionals have tried to promote community-based tourism since the 1970s.
The CBT was a popular intervention during the ecotourism boom of the 1990s. It
is now being suggested as a form of pro-poor tourism. However, only a few
projects have generated sufficient benefits to either provide incentives for
conservation - the objective of ecotourism - or contribute to local poverty reduction.
Community-based
tourism is a complex and nascent field of study, and much remains to be
learned. Continued information sharing and dissemination of research results
are needed to identify better solutions for linking sustainability to the
tourism enterprise. Ongoing research is integral to understanding the means by
which CBT can be made more economically, environmentally and culturally
sustainable. Policy and action should promote continuing research through the
provision of financial, academic, technical, and dissemination support.
Let
us all join hands to develop the tourism sector because it is an industry of
tomorrow, our heritage & a paradise to behold.
Thank you
References
Africa
Resources Trust (2005). Community Tourism in Southern Africa, Last accessed
from www.resourceafrica.org
Akama, J.S.
& Kieti, D. (2007). Tourism and Socio-economic Development in Developing
Countries:
A Case Study of Mombasa Resort in Kenya. Journal of Sustainable Tourism.
Vol. 15 No.
16, pp. 735-748
Aref, F.
& Gill, S.S. (2009). Rural Tourism Development through Rural Cooperatives. Nature
and Science. Vol. 7,
No. 9, pp. 68-73
Beeton, S. (2006). Community Development
Through Tourism. Landlinks Press, Australia.
Emeka
Okonkwo & Chigoize Odum (2003),Community-Based Tourism Development In
Selected Villages In Enugu State, Nigeria, last accessed from www.academicexcellencesociety.com
Eze-Uzomaka Pamela Ifeoma (2006), Tourism
& Community Development in Issues in Tourism Planning and Development (ed)
by P.U Okpoko, Afro-orbis publishing co ltd, 33 catering rest house road,
University of Nigeria Nsukka
Fleischer,
A. & Felsenstein, D. (2000). Support for rural tourism. Does it Make a
Difference?
Annals of
Tourism Research. Vol. 27
Goodwin, H.
& Santilli, R. (2009). Community-Based Tourism: a success? Responsible
Tourism
Graci, S.
(2013). Collaboration and Partnership Development for Sustainable Tourism.
Tourism
Geographies. Vol. 15 No. 1.
Greg
Richards and Derek Hall (2000) Tourism and Sustainable Community Development,
Routledge,
Liburd,
J.J. (2004). NGOs in Tourism and Preservation – Democratic accountability and
Sustainability in question. Tourism Recreation Research, 29(2), 105-110.
Martin
Mowforth and Ian Munt (2003) Tourism and Sustainability. Second edition,
Routledge,
Melker
Ånstrand (2006), Community-based
tourism and socio-culture aspects relating
to tourism -A Case Study of a Swedish student excursion to Babati (Tanzania),
Södertörns Högskola (University) Environment and development in the South 20p
Mustapha Akunaay, Fred Nelson,
Elizabeth Singleton (2003), Community
Based Tourism in Tanzania: Potential and Perils in Practice. 2ND IIPT AFRICAN
CONFERENCE ON
PEACE THROUGH TOURISM
Nshala, R.
2002. Village Rights Relating to Land Management, Tourism, and Tourist Hunting.
Unpublished report of the Lawyers’ Environmental Action Team.
Subramaniam,
P. (2005). Partnership in tourism. In India Revisited: A symposium on
reorienting our policy on tourism. Seminar, October, 19-24.
The
Mountain Institute (2000). Community-Based Tourism for Conservation and
Development: A Resource Kit. Washington: The Mountain Institute.
TPDCO
(2005). Tourism Product Development Company. What is a Community-Based Tourism
Project? Last accessed from www.tpdco.org
UNEP and
WTO (2005) Making Tourism More Sustainable: a Guide for Policy Makers
World
Tourism Organization (WTO). 2002.Tourism and Poverty Alleviation.
Madrid, Spain,
World
Tourism Organization.
